1. Feasting has played an important role in human history

Image 1. A family enjoys a Christmas dinner. Photo: Caiaimage/Sam Edwards/Getty Images

Millions of families will celebrate the holidays. Many will cook and share a big holiday feast. They might do the same every year.

Archaeologists are people who study ancient objects. The objects are called artifacts. They teach us how people used to live. Archaeologists have found proof of ancient human feasts. Leore Grosman, a fellow archaeologist, and I studied a 12,000-year-old dig site. It is called Hilazon Tachtit. The site is in Israel, a country in the Middle East. We found proof of important ritual feasts at the site.

What Are Rituals?

Rituals are meaningful actions. They are often repeated. Examples today include birthdays and weddings. Decorating a Christmas tree and lighting Hanukkah candles are rituals.

Ritual practices might have started more than 100,000 years ago. But archaeologists have had a hard time finding proof. For example, we know that early humans buried their dead. We did not know, though, if burying the dead was a ritual. Experts have found special objects in very old graves. This could prove that burial was a ritual.

The First Feasts

Leore Grosman and I first began digging Hilazon Tachtit in the late 1990s. However, we did not find proof of people living there. The site did not have houses or places to cook. Instead, we found the graves of 28 people. We realized the site was really for rituals.

One of the graves held the remains of an older woman. She had received special treatment after she died. We decided she must have been a healer or leader. Her grave was beautiful. She was buried with many strange animal parts, including 90 tortoises. We also found the remains of three wild cattle. We believe the cattle were used in a ritual feast.

Feasting At The Beginning Of Agriculture

Other archaeologists found proof of ritual feasts. The feasts are from 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. Back then, people were just beginning to farm. Before, they had traveled around to hunt and gather food. Farming meant people had to stay in one place. They started building lasting communities. Farming would be one of the biggest changes in human history.

We found farming tools at Hilazon Tachtit. Ritual feasts seem to have started at the same time as farming.

Rituals That Bring People Together

Feasts became very important. They helped people get along. Living together was hard for early humans. People can argue more when they live closer together. Feasting rituals help everyone get along.

Rituals help to connect people. Sharing food is deeply personal. Feasts help people to build trust.

Feasting also brings people together today. Shared meals make people feel connected. Holiday rituals are a way for families and friends to come together. It is something that has not changed throughout history.

3. Agriculture in Ancient Egypt

Farmers in Ancient Egypt. This is one of the many scenes of farming shown in the tomb of Menna, who lived after 1400 B.C. Photo by: The Yorck Project/Wikimedia Commons.

Without farming, the civilization of ancient Egypt would have never existed.

Thousands of years before, people gathered food. Farming allowed people to grow food for themselves. This was a huge change. It meant more food for everyone. It also meant that more people could live close together.

The ancient Egyptians lived in the northern part of Africa. They began farming more than 8,000 years ago. To do it, they used the power of the Nile River.

Each year, the river would flood. Water from the river would spread over the land. Many nutrients were spread with the water. After a flood, the land became good for farming. Egyptians were able to grow food.

When times were good, there was enough food for everyone. Sometimes, the fields had more food than people needed. The extra food could be traded with people from other lands. It could also be saved for years when there was less food.

Tools and practices

Ancient Egyptians had many tools to help them farm. They used plows, which were large wooden tools. The plows were pulled by oxen, a large animal like a cow. These plows dig into the earth. They loosened the soil.

Ancient Egyptian hoe and plow. Image: Popular Science Monthly.

After plowing, workers broke up the clumps of earth even more. To do this, they used tools called hoes. These were two wooden sticks tied together. Breaking up the soil prepared the earth for planting seeds. Workers then spread the seeds in the fields.

To grow, the seeds needed water.

Canals

Water needed to be moved. It had to be carried from the Nile River to the fields. The Egyptians dug canals, or ditches, into the earth. These canals carried water from the river. It led the water to the fields. This system is called irrigation. It was very advanced for the time.

The canals were well-planned. The water had to travel long distances. Water was precious. No water could be wasted. The government would make sure of this. Officials would watch over the canals.

Animal husbandry, crops and products

Egyptians ate mostly vegetables. They ate foods such as chickpeas and lentils. They also grew lettuce, onions, garlic and corn on their farms. Working people caught and ate fish. Meat was mostly saved for rich families and special events. Egyptian farmers raised animals like cows, goats and chickens.

Not all crops were made into food. One important crop was papyrus. This crop could be turned into paper. It could also be used to make rope, baskets, mats and even small fishing boats.

Another important crop was emmer. It was a grain that was used to make bread and beer.

Farmers

Most farmers did not own their own land. Instead, they worked on other people's land. They gave most of what they grew to the land's owner. They were only allowed to keep a little bit of the food for themselves.

Farming was mainly done by men. Women and children cared for small gardens at home.

Conclusion

Today, farming in Egypt is very different. Big farms use tractors and other machines. Still, the old ways of farming are not all gone. Sometimes, even today, they can be seen on smaller farms in Egypt.

4. Everyone is supposed to pay taxes, but how does it work?

Every country in the world has a government. Governments spend a lot of money. They get this money from taxes.

People and companies pay taxes. In the United States, there are several different kinds of taxes.

The government offers many services. Two good examples are the military and police. Everyone benefits from these services. They are paid for by taxes.

Taxes Pay For Many Things

The government also makes rules. Rules are meant to protect people. Some rules make sure that the products that we buy are high quality and safe. Others make sure that people have the right training for their jobs. For example, doctors must have special schooling.

The government helps to pay for public schools. It also offers help to people who need it. The government gives money and medical help to elderly people. It also gives money for a while to people who do not have a job or are disabled.

Three Main Taxes

Governments tax three things. The first is income, or the money people make from their jobs. The second is on what people buy. The third is wealth, or what people own.

The national government gets most of its money from income taxes. This is a tax on the money people earn at work.

Both businesses and workers pay for something called Social Security. This gives people money when they retire. People also pay for unemployment protection. This provides money to people who do not have a job.

States Have Their Own Taxes

State governments also charge income tax. Many states have sales taxes. The sales tax is a tax on things that we buy. They can include cars, toys and movie tickets. Each state can charge different amounts of sales tax.

Some things get taxed higher so fewer people will buy them. Alcohol and cigarettes are taxed higher.

Town and city governments get most of their money from property taxes. This includes homes and businesses. The tax depends on how much the property is worth.

How Much Should We Pay?

In the United States, income tax is supposed to be a simple idea. People should be taxed based on how much they can pay. Those with the same income might not be able to pay the same tax. For example, people with many medical bills have less money to pay taxes. The government lets them subtract some medical bills from their taxes.

People who make more money pay more in taxes.

Taxes are spent on many programs that help people. This includes programs for veterans. Another big part of national spending is for the military.

The government spends money on roads, airports and trains. It also takes care of public parks and the environment.

5. Education and Equality in the United States

A class at Fort Myer Elementary School in 1955. Kids of all races could be in the same class. Before 1954, some U.S. states were allowed to keep black and white children in separate schools.

Everyone should have a chance to go to a good school. That has been a powerful idea in the United States for a long time. This belief led to public schools. Students can attend these schools at no cost. Public schools are paid for by taxes. Many Americans have believed it is important to have well-educated citizens.

Americans have not always believed education was so important. More than 100 years ago, many children didn't go to school. They had to work instead. They worked on farms or in factories. Society changed, though. More jobs needed people who could read and do math. Most families realized their children would have a better life if they went to school.

Schools change their policies after segregation
In the 1950s, education in the United States faced another change. African-Americans and other groups wanted better opportunities for their children. Usually, white students had better schools. In many places, black students received a poor education. White and black kids were not allowed to go to school together. This policy was called segregation.

Some states changed their policies. New laws told schools to end segregation. All students were to have the chance to go to a good school. Everyone deserved to be treated fairly.

These new laws made many people upset. They did not want to change. These changes made their schools worse, they said.

Some schools, though, did their best to adjust. They added new classes. For example, some schools studied African-American history. Students read books by black writers. Many schools taught English classes for students who were learning English as their second language. These classes helped children who had come from other countries.

Women fight for equal education
More girls and women also asked for an equal education. They wanted to study more about women. They wanted to read women writers. Mostly men went to college in those days. More women wanted similar opportunities to learn and pursue the same careers as men.

Some people had also pushed for more open schools. They said kids should be allowed to be more creative in class and standardized testing shouldn't be so important. But some people were against this. They wanted more traditional schools and a "back to basics" approach to learning. They said open schools would hurt education.

Lawmakers focus on test scores
Student test scores dropped in the years that followed. Lawmakers suggested new reforms, or corrections. Many said better test scores were what mattered most. Equality in education was not seen as important.

New laws told districts to test students more often. Classes stressed math, science and English. "New basics" were added. These new classes included computers. The Internet became an important new tool.

Education reforms and technology are affecting how and what students learn. Will they help them get a better education? That remains to be seen.

6. Coffee Bean Economics and Globalization

Farmers sort coffee beans after they have been picked. Coffee is part of a global supply chain. By the time someone buys a cup of coffee or a bag of beans, they have been on a journey through many countries. Photo by: Pixino.

There are many different kinds of companies. Some of them sell products, like food and toys. Other companies sell services, like haircuts and car repairs. All of these companies are part of the economy. Most of them run in similar ways.

Dean's Beans is a coffee company. It is based in Orange, Massachusetts. The company is run like most companies. Looking at how it works can make it easier to understand some important ideas about economics.

The Market Basics

Product

The thing a company sells is called the product. Sometimes the company makes the product itself. In other cases, the company buys the product from another place. Then it sells the product to the public. For example, Dean's Beans buys coffee beans from different parts of the world. It roasts the beans in Massachusetts. This gives them their delicious flavor. Then the company sells the beans to supermarkets.

Michael Skillicorn used to work at Dean's Beans. He says the company buys about 500,000 pounds of coffee beans each year. It buys the raw beans for somewhere between $1.90 to $3 a pound. After the beans are roasted, Dean's Beans sells them starting at $10.00 a pound. The price depends on a number of things. First, there is the cost of the beans. Then there is the cost of the bags. The workers have to be paid, too. Beyond that, there is the cost of shipping the beans. Then there is a bit more added to the price for profit. Profit is the money the company gets to keep. It is how much money is left over after everything else is paid for.

Supply And Demand

Two big things affect prices. One is the supply, or how much product a company has to sell. The other is the demand. This is how many people want to buy the product. Supply and demand work together. If supply is high and demand is low, the price of the product will go down. If supply is low and demand is high, the price will go up.
Capital And Investment
A company needs money to get started. This money is called capital. Capital also helps the business keep going. Dean's Beans needs capital to pay for its machines and its workers. Company owners often borrow money to start a business. If the company is successful, this money leads to profits. The profits can be used as capital. They help the business grow.

The People

Need And Cost To A Company

Businesses are complicated. A business has to do many different things to run smoothly. Most of the time, one person alone cannot do all of these things. That is why companies need workers. In most companies, each worker has their own specific job.

Global Market

Global Supply Chain

A product usually goes on a long journey. It is made or grown in one place and sold in another. This journey is called the global supply chain. For example, much of Dean's Beans coffee is grown in Guatemala. The farmers there pick the coffee beans. Then they ship the beans to the United States. The beans go to Dean's Beans to be roasted and bagged. Finally, the beans are shipped to stores.

Small Business Versus Big Business

Dean's Beans is a small business. Some coffee companies are much bigger. Larger companies may need more capital to get going. But those larger costs usually lead to bigger profits. That is because a larger company can spend more on machines. These help save more time and money later.

Running a successful company is not easy. It requires many people to work together. Sometimes these people are in different parts of the world. A global economy depends on global teamwork.

7. Understanding key terms in the gun control debate

A sign for Nagel's Gun Shop, one of the 6,700 gun dealers located near the 2,000-mile long U.S.-Mexico border, in San Antonio, Texas, 2009. Photo by: Gilles Mingasson/Getty Images

Many Americans feel strongly about guns. Some want more laws to control who can buy guns. Others say that would take away the right to own guns.

The debate over guns can be confusing. Let's look at some of the key words that often come up. Understanding these words will help you follow arguments about gun control. You might even come up with arguments of your own.

The Second Amendment
Those who are against more gun laws often talk about the Second Amendment. This part of U.S. Constitution was added in 1791. It says citizen soldiers were allowed to carry guns for protection.

Today, the Second Amendment is understood in different ways. The Supreme Court is the country's highest court. In 2008, the Supreme Court decided that people can keep certain guns in their house. The guns should be for protection.

Federal Vs. State Law
There is a difference between federal and state laws. Federal laws are followed by the whole country. Each state also has its own extra set of laws. These laws cannot go against federal laws.

This is true for gun laws, too. There are federal laws that everyone follows. Each state also has its own gun laws. All these laws decide who can make, buy or sell guns.

Take a look at the chart below. You can check the gun laws in your state.

Types Of Weapons
Guns come in different types. They can be automatic or semi-automatic. They can be handguns or long guns.

An automatic gun keeps firing while the trigger is pressed. Machine guns are automatic. A semi-automatic gun fires one bullet when the trigger is pressed. Examples are the AK-47 and AR-15 rifles. Rifles like these are also called assault weapons.

A long gun is a long, two-handed weapon. Shotguns and rifles are long guns. A handgun is smaller. It can be held with one hand.

Prohibited Purchase
The Gun Control Act is a federal law from 1968. It says which people are not allowed to buy guns. It includes people who got sentenced for serious crimes. It also includes people with certain mental health problems.

Federal laws also talk about age. To own a handgun, a person has to be more than 18 years old. People under 21 can't buy handguns from a licensed seller. People under 18 can't buy handguns from unlicensed sellers. They can't buy long guns from licensed sellers.

Anyone can buy long guns from unlicensed sellers. Licensed sellers officially sell guns as a job. Unlicensed sellers are private sellers. They are people who sell guns rarely.

Background Check
A background check is a way of finding out if someone can buy a gun. It means checking that person's history. In 1998, the FBI created a system to make background checks faster. The FBI, or Federal Bureau of Investigation, is a top government group. It investigates crimes in the whole country.

The Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act is a law from 1993. It says that licensed sellers have to do background checks. They also need to keep track of gun sales. But this law does not apply to everyone. Private sellers do not have to do background checks.

Because of this, some people want the federal law to change. They say all sellers should do background checks. This is called a universal background check.

Loopholes
A loophole is a way around the law. Some people say that federal laws have a major loophole. Dealers can say that selling guns is just a hobby. This lets anyone buy guns from them. The buyers are able to skip the background check.

Waiting Period
Some states have a waiting period. This means that buyers cannot take guns home right away. They need to wait for their background check first.

Registration And Licensing
In some states, buyers need a "permit to purchase." This means they need permission to buy certain guns. In other states, people need a "license to own" a gun. Some states also have people go through safety training. After the training, they earn a "Firearm Safety Certificate."

A registration is different from a license. When people register a gun, they let the state know they own it. That way it can be tracked. The National Rifle Association, or NRA, is against registering guns. The NRA is a powerful pro-gun group. It says that registration is not useful. Criminals can get guns anyway, the NRA says.

Stand Your Ground
Some state laws give people more freedom with guns. "Stand your ground" laws allow people to shoot in public. They can only do it in self-defense.

Concealed Carry
Concealed carry means carrying a gun outside the home. Concealed means that the gun is hidden. The laws for concealed carry are different from state to state. Some let people carry hidden guns. In other states, people need a permit to do it.

8. What is hate speech?

People protest hate speech on February 1, 2017, in Berkeley, California. Photo by: AP Photo/Ben Margot

Hate speech is words used to bring down a person.

These words are used against someone that is part of a certain group. That group may have a certain skin color, or are from a certain country. They may follow a certain religion. It may even be their age. Or maybe they just are different in some way.

Hate speech uses cruel words known as slurs.

There is usually a goal behind hate speech. A person may use it to try to get other people to also hate or attack that group.

Pictures And Symbols Count Too
Hate speech can also be pictures and symbols. A symbol is something that stands for something else. For example, the American flag is a symbol of the United States. Many people think the Nazi swastika symbol is hate speech.

Nazis caused the Holocaust. The Holocaust was a terrible time in history. The Nazis killed Jews because of their religion.

The Confederate flag is also considered hate speech by some. The Confederacy was formed by a group of Southern states. This happened in the 1860s. They broke away from the United States. They separated from the North to keep owning black people as slaves. This led to the Civil War.

Some people say hate speech causes harm for its targets. It could cause violence against them.

Hate speech is usually directed at people who have less power in the world. People say that hate speech makes its targets less equal.

Constitution Protects Hate Speech
Hate speech is a problem for free countries. The United States is a free country. The U.S. Constitution says that all people are equal. However, it also says that people have the "freedom of expression." In other words, they should be allowed to say whatever they want without getting punished.

And so, there is a question: Should hate speech be controlled by the government? If so, how?

In many free societies, all speech is usually allowed. Even hate speech is allowed.

Many people are disgusted by hate speech. However, they do not want the government to block people from saying what they feel.

Making A Decision Together
In some countries, no one is allowed to say bad things about the government. Most people in free countries do not like this. For them, it should be OK to speak out against the government.

Some of these people say we just need to point out that hate speech is wrong. We must discuss it openly. Everyone can decide together that it is wrong.

Other groups say the government should block hate speech. Even in free countries, some groups have less power, they say. These people could get hurt because of hate speech.

More Than Words
For them, hate speech is more than just words. It also continues the unfair treatment of some groups. It could cause more people to take in the messages. Then, they may want to attack certain groups, too.

The United States protects freedom of speech in the Constitution. This is called the First Amendment. The U.S. courts usually rule that hate speech cannot be blocked. It is also protected by the First Amendment. Hate speech is usually only illegal if it is used to cause immediate violence to someone. France, Germany and Canada are also democracies. But they made laws to reduce hate speech. Many of those laws were written because of the Holocaust.

9. What is activism?

Teenagers participate in a march to demand action on climate change in 2014. Marching for a cause is one example of activism. Photo: Wikimedia Commons

Activism is when people fight for social change. The desired change might be a new law. It might be a change to the practices of a business. It might simply be a change in public opinion. In the United States, activism has led to many changes.

People involved in activism are called activists. Usually they work together in groups. They might hold marches or rallies. At these events, many people gather together. They share their views in a public setting.

Another form of activism is a boycott. It is a way for people to protest a company. In a boycott, people refuse to buy a company's products. This puts pressure on the company. The goal is to get the company to change its actions.

Activism Fighting To Protect The Environment
Today, many people are fighting to protect the environment. One of the tools they use is activism. In some communities, builders want to buy wilderness areas. They want to put up buildings on the land. However, doing this might be bad for the environment. It might hurt plants and wildlife.

People can use activism to fight back. One tool they have is a petition. For a petition, activists collect signatures from people who support their cause. Then they send the signatures to town leaders. Activists might also go to community meetings. They can encourage their leaders to protect the environment.

Activism does not just take place in small communities. It happens at higher levels, too. In 2015, 400,000 people gathered in New York City. They took part in the People's Climate March. The goal of the march was to get world leaders to fight climate change. Climate change is the reason the Earth is getting warmer. Scientists think it is caused by fossil fuels. These are fuels like oil and coal. Burning them creates greenhouse gases. These gases trap heat in the atmosphere. That makes the Earth warmer.

Groups Depend On Activists
Many groups are fighting to protect the planet. Most of these groups do not have many workers. They depend on activists to help them.

One of these groups is the Environmental Defense Fund. It works on problems related to climate change. Another group is the Kindling Trust. It supports sustainable farming in England. 350.org is another group fighting climate change. It supports activists in more than 188 countries. These groups work in different ways. But they all use activism to meet their goals.

10. This 5-year-old girl is collecting crayons for kids who are sick

Brooklyn Brown, 5, of Huntington Woods, Michigan, is surrounded by the crayons she has collected for sick children. She has juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and wanted to do something to help other kids. She'll donate the crayons to area children's hospitals on Martin Luther King Day.

Brooklyn Brown has collected thousands of crayons. There are fat crayons and skinny crayons. Some of them are glittery. Some of them are smelly. Others twist.

Brooklyn is 5 years old and goes to kindergarten. She lives in Michigan.

She will give the crayons to kids at children's hospitals. So far, there are 2,639 packs. She will give them to the hospitals on January 21. It is Martin Luther King Jr. Day. The day remembers King. He was a great leader who fought for black people and white people to be treated equally. Many people do things to help others on that day.

Brooklyn said she knows many kids are sick. She wanted to help them.

Coloring Pages Need Crayons
Brooklyn knows it is boring in the hospital.

She has a disease called juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. The disease affects children. It makes the joints swell up and become stiff. It can make it hard to move. There are up to 50,000 children in the United States who have it.

Her school asked students to think of ways to help the community. She knew just what to do. Give kids crayons.

Rychee Brown is Brooklyn's mother. Hospitals have coloring pages and paper for children, she said. There aren't enough crayons. It costs a lot to buy new crayons for every child in the hospital.

Brooklyn's project will bring joy and crayons to many kids.

The family started a wish list online. Anyone can contribute to it.

Sometimes, Brooklyn Needs A Wheelchair
Brooklyn takes medicine for her arthritis. She eats special foods to help. She is taking part in a study by Duke University. Scientists there want to know how the diet affects her disease, her mother said. She also swims, dances and does gymnastics.

Her arthritis is sometimes better and sometimes worse. When it gets bad, it's hard to walk or climb the stairs.

Brooklyn has to scoot on the floor like a bug, she said. Sometimes, she needs a wheelchair to get around. She needs help doing even simple things.

Brooklyn said her favorite color is blue. She also likes cats, butterflies and turtles.

She May Not Be Sick When She Grows Up
Her parents hope she won't be sick when she grows up.

The good news is she is doing well, her father said.

Brooklyn held a pink and purple microphone stand. She began singing a song about her crayon drive. "I know it's in your heart," her song ends. "It has to be a dream come true."